Egypt History
The mummy coffins that have been relocated inside the Grand Egyptian Museum; credit Egypt Tourism
The area encompassing Egypt was inhabited by 5000 BC. Few written artifacts have been found from the Predynastic Period, which encompassed at least 2,000 years of gradual development of the Egyptian civilization. Around 3400 BC, two separate kingdoms were established near the Nile River Delta, extending north to the Mediterranean Sea and south towards Nubia, today called Sudan. The Red Land to the north and the White Land to the south.
For the chronology of the Egyptian dynasties and pharaohs that followed, visit this website.
A southern king, the Scorpion, made the first attempts to conquer the northern kingdom around 3200 BC. A century later, King Menes subdued the north and unified Egypt, thereby launching the Early Dynastic Period (3100-2686 BC). King Menes founded the capital of ancient Egypt at White Walls (later known as Memphis), in the north, near the apex of the Nile River delta. Memphis grew into a great metropolis that dominated Egyptian society.
Most ancient Egyptians were farmers living in small villages, and agriculture (largely wheat and barley) formed the economic base of the Egyptian state. The annual flooding of the great Nile River provided the necessary irrigation and fertilization each year; farmers sowed the wheat after the flooding receded and harvested it before the season of high temperatures and drought returned.
The region today known as the Cairo Metro Area has been central to Ancient Egypt due to its junction of the Nile Valley (Upper Egypt) and the Nile Delta (Lower Egypt) that empties into the Mediterranean Sea.
Old Kingdom: Pyramid Builders (2686-2181 BC)
The Old Kingdom began with the 3rd dynasty of pharaohs. Around 2630 BC, the third dynasty’s King Djoser asked Imhotep, an architect, priest, and healer, to design a funerary monument for him. The result was the world’s first major stone building, the Step-Pyramid at Saqqara, near the city of Memphis. That city was also a crossroads between North Africa and the Middle East.
Egyptian pyramid-building reached its zenith with the Great Pyramid at Giza for Pharaoh Khufu, who ruled from 2589 to 2566 BC. It remains the tallest Pyramid in the Ancient World. The ancient Greek historian Herodotus estimated that it took 100,000 men 20 years to build it.
Two other pyramids were built at Giza for Khufu’s successors Khafra (2558-2532 BC) and Menkaura (2532-2503 BC).
Riding camels to the Giza Pyramid Complex; credit Murat Sahin
During the 3rd and 4th dynasties, Egyptian pharaohs conducted successful military campaigns in Nubia (“Sudan”) and Libya that added to their economic prosperity. The pharaohs held absolute power, provided a stable government, and faced no serious threats from abroad.
Over the 5th and 6th dynasties, the kingdom’s wealth was gradually depleted, partially due to the huge expense of pyramid-building. The growing influence of the priesthood around the sun-god Ra also diminished a pharaoh’s power. After the death of the 6th dynasty’s King Pepy II, who ruled for 94 years, the Old Kingdom period ended in chaos.
First Intermediate Period (2181-2055 BC)
The 7th and 8th dynasties consisted of a rapid succession of Memphis-based rulers until about 2160 BC, when central authority collapsed, leading to civil war between provincial governors. This chaotic situation was intensified by Arabian Bedouin invasions and accompanied by famine and disease.
From this era of conflict emerged two different kingdoms in the 9th and 10th dynasties based in Heracleopolis, who ruled Middle Egypt between Memphis and Thebes, while another family of rulers arose in Thebes.
Around 2055 BC, the Theban prince Mentuhotep managed to topple Heracleopolis and reunite Egypt, beginning the 11th dynasty and ending the First Intermediate Period.
Middle Kingdom: 12th Dynasty (2055-1786 BC)
After Mentuhotep IV was assassinated, the throne passed to his chief minister, who became King Amenemhet I, founder of the 12th dynasty. A new capital was established at It-towy, south of Memphis, while Thebes remained a great religious center. Egypt flourished again. The 12th dynasty kings ensured smooth successions by making each successor co-regent, which reduced jealousy for power.
Middle-Kingdom pharaohs colonized Nubia for its rich supply of resources (gold, ebony, ivory, etc.), and they repelled the Bedouins. The kingdom built diplomatic and trade relations with Syria and Palestine, and military fortresses. They also mined quarries, enabling a return to pyramid-building.
The Middle Kingdom reached its peak under Amenemhet III (1842-1797 BC) and began its decline began under Amenenhet IV (1798-1790 BC) and continued under his sister and regent, Queen Sobekneferu (1789-1786 BC), who was the first confirmed female ruler of Egypt and the last ruler of the 12th dynasty.
Second Intermediate Period (1786-1567 BC)
During the 13th dynasty, Egypt was divided into several spheres of influence. The seat of government was relocated to Thebes, while a rival dynasty (which became the 14th dynasty), settled in the city of Xois in the Nile Delta.
Around 1650 BC, a line of foreign rulers known as the Hyksos took advantage of Egypt’s instability to gain partial control of the kingdom. The Hyksos rulers of the 15th dynasty continued many Egyptian traditions in government and culture. They ruled concurrently with the line of native Theban rulers of the 16th and 17th dynasties, who controlled southern Egypt despite having to pay taxes to the Hyksos.
The Thebans launched a war against the Hyksos around 1570 BC, driving them out of Egypt.
New Kingdom (1567-1085 BC)
High Priest Amun with wife Mutemhat (small) at Karnak Temple, Luxor; (c) Candice Archie/Soul Of America
In the 18th dynasty, Pharaoh Ahmose I reunited Egypt and restored its control over Nubia. He began military campaigns in Palestine, clashing with the Mitannians and the Hittites. His empire stretched from Nubia to the Euphrates River (“Iraq” today).
In addition to powerful kings such as Amenhotep I (1546-1526 BC), Thutmose I (1525-1512 BC), and Amenhotep III (1417-1379 BC), the New Kingdom was notable for Queen Hatshepsut (1503-1482 BC). She began ruling as a regent for her young stepson, later to become Pharaoh Thutmose III, Egypt’s greatest military hero.
The controversial Pharaoh Amenhotep IV (1379-1362 BC) of the late 18th dynasty disbanded the priesthoods dedicated to Amon-Re (a combination of the local Theban god Amon and the sun god Re). Amenhotep IV forced the exclusive worship of another sun-god, Aton, and renamed himself Akhenaton (“Servant of the Aton”). He also built a new capital in Middle Egypt called “Akhetaton”, known later as Amarna.
He angered the priesthood and Egyptian religious orthodoxy. Upon Akhenaton’s death, the capital returned to Thebes, and Egyptians returned to worshiping a multitude of gods.
The 19th and 20th dynasties, ruled by the line of pharaohs named Ramses, saw the restoration of the weakened Egyptian empire and impressive temple and city buildings. According to biblical chronology, the exodus of Moses and the Israelites from Egypt occurred during the reign of Ramses II (1304-1237 BC).
Ramses II Egyptian Empire around 1300 BC; credit Thomas A Lessman
The last “great” pharaoh from the New Kingdom was Ramesses III, who reigned three decades after the time of Ramesses II (1279–1213 BC). Though he won great battles vs. the Sea People, their presence in nearby Canaan may have contributed to new states such as Philistia after the collapse of the Egyptian Empire.
Ramesses III was also compelled to fight invading Libyans in two major campaigns in Egypt’s Western Delta. The heavy cost of these battles slowly exhausted Egypt’s treasury and contributed to the gradual decline of the Egyptian Empire in Asia.
The severity of these difficulties is stressed by the fact that the first known strike in recorded history occurred during Year 29 of Ramesses III’s reign when the food rations dwindled.
Something in the air prevented much sunlight from reaching the ground and also arrested global tree growth for almost two full decades until 1140 BC. One proposed cause is the Hekla 3 eruption in Iceland.
Following Ramesses III’s death, three of his sons would assume power as Ramesses IV, Ramesses VI, and Ramesses VIII, respectively. However, at this time, Egypt was also increasingly beset by a series of droughts, below-normal flooding levels of the Nile, famine, civil unrest, and corruption.
The power of the last pharaoh, Ramesses XI, grew so weak that in the south, the Theban High Priests of Amun became the effective de facto rulers of Upper Egypt, while Smendes controlled Lower Egypt even before Ramesses XI’s death. Smendes would eventually found the 21st Dynasty at Tanis.
Third Intermediate Period
After the death of Ramesses XI, his successor Smendes ruled from the city of Tanis in the north, while the High Priests of Amun at Thebes ruled Southern Egypt while officially recognizing Smendes as king. Since both priests and pharaohs came from the same family, that was no big deal. Piankh assumed control of Upper Egypt, ruling from Thebes, with the northern limit of his control ending at Al-Hibah.
The country was once again split into two parts, with the priests in Thebes and the pharaohs at Tanis. Their reign seems without other distinction, and they were replaced without any apparent struggle by the Libyan kings of the 22nd Dynasty.
Shoshenq I, was a Meshwesh Libyan who served as the commander of the armies and unified the country. He put control of the Amun clergy under his son as the High Priest of Amun.
There appear to have been many subversive groups, which led to the creation of the 23rd Dynasty running concurrently with the latter 22nd Dynasty around 945 BC. Oddly, this brought stability to the country for over a century.
After the reign of Osorkon II, the country had again splintered into two states with Shoshenq III of the 22nd Dynasty controlling Lower Egypt by 818 BC, while Takelot II and his son (the future Osorkon III) ruled Middle and Upper Egypt.
After the withdrawal of Egypt from Nubia at the end of the New Kingdom, a native dynasty took control of Nubia. Under King Piye, the Nubian founder of the 25th Dynasty, the Nubians pushed north to crush his Libyans ruling the Nile Delta.
Queen Nefertari’s tomb wall in Abu Simbel; credit Wiki Commons/Public Domain
Piye gained control as far north as Memphis (a suburb of Cairo today). His opponent, Tefnakhte, submitted to him, but he was allowed to remain in power in Lower Egypt and founded the short-lived 24th Dynasty at Sais.
The Kushite kingdom to the south took full advantage of this division and political instability and defeated several native-Egyptian rulers such as Peftjauawybast, Osorkon IV of Tanis, and Tefnakht of Sais. Piye was succeeded first by his brother, Shabaka, and then by his two sons, Shebitku and Taharqa.
From 760 to 600 BC, five Kushite (Black) Pharaohs ruled all of Egypt from Nubia to the Mediterranean Sea. They constructed great buildings up and down the Nile and including pyramids, where they buried their kings, rather than inside, like earlier pharaohs.
The power of the 25th Dynasty climaxed under Pharaoh Taharqa. The Nile Valley empire revived Egyptian arts and architecture. The Nubian pharaohs built or restored temples and monuments throughout the Nile valley, including Memphis, Karnak, Kawa, and Jebel Barkal. The Kushites developed their Meroitic alphabet, which was influenced by Egyptian writing systems.
Taharqa initially defeated the Assyrians when war broke out in 674 BC. Yet, in 671 BC, the Assyrian King Esarhaddon started the Assyrian conquest of Egypt, took Memphis, and Taharqo retreated to the south, while his heir and other family members were taken to Assyria as prisoners.
The Pharaoh Taharqa statue at the Louvre Museum in Paris
The native Egyptian vassal rulers installed by King Esarhaddon as puppets were unable to retain full control, and Taharqa was able to regain temporary control of Memphis. Esarhaddon’s 669 BC campaign to once more eject Taharqa was abandoned when Esarhaddon died in Palestine on the way to Egypt.
Late Dynastic Period
Taharqa’s successor, Tantamani, sailed north from Napata, through Elephantine, and to Thebes with a large army to Thebes, where he was installed as the king of Egypt.
From Thebes, Tantamani regained control of Egypt, as far north as Memphis. His troops were defeated by the Assyrians, who had a military presence in the Levant, and then sent a large army southwards in 663 BC.
Tantamani was routed, and the Assyrian army sacked Thebes to such an extent that it never recovered. Tantamani was chased back to Nubia, but his control over Upper Egypt endured until 656 BC. At this date, a native Egyptian ruler, Psamtik I, son of Necho, placed on the throne as a vassal of Ashurbanipal, took control of Thebes.
The last links between Kush and Upper Egypt were severed after hostilities with the Saite kings in the 590s BC.